Class XII – Rebels and the Raj – Important Questions

Ans. In 1857, the soldiers were given new cartridges coated with the fat of cows and pigs. The soldiers had to peel them out with their teeth before using them. It corrupted their caste and religious norms. Therefore, the Hindu and the Muslim soldiers refused to use these cartridges. They revolted against the British to preserve their faith.

Ans. (i) From the decade of 1840, the British officers developed a sense of superiority. They treated sepoys as their racial inferiors. They ignored the sensibilities and feelings of the sepoys. The use of abuse and physical violence became quite common. So the sepoys lost trust in their British Officers.

(ii) The sepoys were enraged at the greased cartridges supplied to them.

(iii) The sepoys were closely linked to the rural people. So when they defied their officers and took up arms against them, they were supported by all rural people. Even the peasants and ordinary people joined the soldiers in collective acts of rebellion.

Ans. (i) The Britishers felt that the soil of Awadh was very good for cultivation of indigo and cotton.

(ii) They also thought that this state could be developed into a principal market of North India.

Ans. Awadh was conquered and annexed into the British empire by Lord Dalhousie in 1856.

Ans. The taluqdars of Awadh felt influenced by the British policy in the following way:

i) The forts and castles of the taluqdars were demolished and their armed forces were disbanded.

ii) They were deprived of their lands under summary settlement of 1856. Many taluqdars lost even more than half the villages under their control.

iii) Their freedom was snatched.

iv) They lost a lot of power and respect because of the loss of their land.

v) The demand of revenue was doubled. It generated a sense of anger among the taluqdars.

Ans. Subsidiary Alliance was a system of land revenue introduced by Lord Wellesley in 1798 C.E. all the local rulers had to accept the following terms and conditions who entered into such an alliance with the British:

(i) The ally would have to keep a British armed contingent in his territory.

(ii) The British would be responsible for protection of their ally from any type of external and internal threats to their power.

(iii) Resources for maintaining the British contingent would be provided by the ally.

(iv) The ally could not enter into the agreement with other local rulers or foreign companies or engage in warfare without the permission of the British.

(v) One British Resident would be stationed in the Court of the ally king.

Ans. The white officers made it a point during the 1820s till 1840s to maintain friendly relations with the sepoys. These were as follows:

(i) Several white officers could speak in Hindustani easily and were also familiar with the culture and traditions of the country.

(ii) The relationship of sepoys with their British officials underwent significant change. In the decade of 1820, British officers stressed on maintaining friendly relations with the sepoys.

(iii) Prior to the revolt of 1857, the relationship of the sepoys with white officers made it a point to keep friendly relationship with the sepoys. They would actively take part in their leisure activities.

(iv) Despite this in the 1840s, the balance of mutual relationship changed drastically. The white officers created a sense of superiority and started keeping the sepoys as their racial inferiors.

(v) The equation of superior and inferior changed the whole script of mutual relationship. The elements of abuse and physical violence became routine activities. Consequently, the distance between sepoys and officers became wider. Due to this, mutual suspicion cropped up.

Ans. Introduction

The Nawab of Awadh had been loyal to the British East India Company from the very beginning. But, the loyalty of Awadh was of no significance to Lord Dalhousie’s imperialistic ambitions. Awadh could not be annexed on the basis of the Doctrine of Lapse as Wajid Ali Shah, as the Nawab of Awadh had several successors. So, the British especially Lord Dalhousie used a number of mischievous tricks to annex the Awadh and dispossessed the Taluqdars. These were:

(i) On 13^th February, 1856, Awadh was annexed to the British empire on the ground of Maladministration.

(ii) Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was sent to Calcutta with an annual pension of 12 lakh. Witht eh dissolution of the Royal Administration, large number of courtiers, officials and Taluqdars became jobless.

(iii) Jagirs of taluqdars were confiscated. This upheaval was aggravated by immediate material losses.

(iv) The British were not willing to tolerate the power of the taluqdars.

(v) With the removal of Nawab, all taluqdars of the Awadh were also dispossessed, taluqdars were disarmed and their forts were destroyed.

(vi) With a new revenue system i.e., Summary Settlement, taluqdars lost their very large share of revenue from land. Wherever possible, taluqdars were removed and settlement was done directly with peasant.

(vii) British believed that this would increase the flow of revenue to the company and peasants would also be freed from oppression of taluqdars. This annexation of Awadh meant complete breakdown of social order.

Ans. The revolt tried to garner the support of all sections of the society irrespective of their caste and creed. The rebellion was viewed as a war in which both the communities as Hindus and Muslims stood equally to gain and lose.

i) The amicable relations which existed between the two communities were emphasized. The ishtehars brought to the forefront memories of the pre-British Hindu-Muslim past and glorified the coexistence of different communities under the Mughal Empire.

ii) The proclamation that was issued under the name of Bahadur Shah appealed to the people to join the fight under the standards of both Muhammad and Mahavir.

iii) In Bareilly, the British spent 50,000 to incite the Hindu population against the Muslims, but their attempt failed.

iv) Thus religious differences were not visible between the two communities in 1857 despite British attempts to create a wedge between them. Through this way they tried to materialize their vision of unity.

Ans. It was not easy for the British to control and crush the Revolt of 1857. Even then, they took several steps to quell it. These can be studied as follows:

i) Martial Law and Death Sentence: The British passed a series of laws to quell the insurgency in India. By the laws passed in May and June, 1857, the whole of North India was put under martial law. The military officers were also empowered to try and punish the rebel Indians. They ignored ordinary processes of the law and trail. They gave only one punishment to all the rebels and that was death. In other words, the British tried to suppress the revolt by all means.

ii) Two-Pronged Military Action: The British knew the symbolic value of Delhi. Thus, they initiated a two-pronged attack. One foce moved from Calcutta into North India. The other force started from Punjab to reconquer Delhi. At last the British captured Delhi in September, 1857. Similarly, the British forces went ahead village by village in the Gangetic plain. They recaptured the lost ground step by step. In fact, the British knew that they were not merely dealing with a mutiny and rather were facing an uprising that had a popular mass support. According to Forsyth, a British official, about 75% adult male population in Awadh was in rebellion.

iii) Counter – Insurgency Operations: The British took up various anti-insurgency operations to suppress the rebellion. They followed protracted fighting. They did not care for the heavy losses that they faced to snatch Delhi from the rebels.

iv) Diplomacy: The British were worried where the big landlords and peasants had offered united resistance. So they tried to break up this unity by adopting diplomatic means.

v) They promised to return the estates of the landlords. They dispossessed the rebel landholders and rewarded the loyal landholders. Few of these landlords either died while fighting with the Britishers or ran away to Nepal where they died due to starvation or illness.

Ans. There was a widespread discontentment among the people of various regions and princely states because of the policies of Lord Dalhousie. The disgust and anger that prevailed in Awadh was nowhere to be seen in the whole of India.

i) Here, Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was removed on the charges of misgovernance and was sent to Calcutta. In 1851, Governor General Lord Dalhousie had described the kingdom of Awadh as “a cherry that will drop into our mouth one day”.

ii) In fact, the British had concluded that Wajid Ali Shah was not very popular among the people. But the reality was that he was the beloved of the local people. When the Nawab was leaving Awadh, a large number of people were weeping. They followed him till Kanpur.

iii) When the Nawab was removed it brought an end to quote and its culture. This emotional upheaval was aggravated immediate material losses. It rendered many musicians, dancers, poets, artisans and cooks and administrative officials jobless all the people lost their means of livelihood because the Nawab, who patronized them, was dethroned.

The role of peasants, Taluqdar and Zamindars:

The revolt of 1857 was an expression of popular resistance of foreign rule. All the peasants, Taluqdars and zamindars participated in it.

i) The annexation of Awadh to the British empire not only displaced Nawab Wajid Ali Shah but also dispossessed the taluqdars of the region. Earlier, the taluqdars controlled land, forts and power in the countryside. They also enjoyed autonomy as long as they accepted the suzerainty of the Nawab and paid the due revenue.

The big taluqdars had about twelve thousand foot soldiers but the small taluqdars had about two hundred foot-soldiers. The British disarmed the taluqdars and destroyed their forts. They undermined their position and authority by adopting a new land revenue policy which was unfavourable to the taluqdars. For example, before the annexation of Awadh, the taluqdars held 67% villages of Awadh under their control. But after the introduction of the British Policy of Summary Settlement, this number had come down to 38%

ii) Most of the peasants were not happy as most of them were over-assessed. At some places, the increase in revenue was from 30 to 70%. It resulted in the breakdown of the entire social system.

iii) Before the arrival of the British, the taluqdars were oppressors. They got a variety of dues from the peasants but they also posed themselves as if they were fatherly-figures. They seemed considerate in times of need.

iv) But under the British rule, the peasants were over-assessed regarding the payment of dues. They also had to follow inflexible methods of collection. As all the taluqdars and peasants were loyal to the Nawab, they fought against the British. So there was an intense and long lasting revolt against the British in Awadh.

V) Whole of the social order was broken down with the dispossession of the taluqdars. The ties of patronage and loyalty were disrupted that had bound the peasants to the taluqdars. Before the Britishers, these taluqdars were oppressors but some of them were seemed to be generous fatherly figures. They extracted a number of dues from the peasants but they also helped them during their bad times. Now, during the British rule, the peasants were directly exposed to over-assessment of revenue and non-flexible methods of revenue collection. Now there was no guarantee that the revenue demand of the state would be reduced or collection postponed in case of crop failure or in the times of hardship. Peasants also had no guarantee that they would get the loan and support in times of festivities which the taluqdars had earlier provided.

vi) The resistance was intense and long lasting in the areas like Awadh during the revolt of 1857. Here the fighting was carried on for long by taluqdars and their peasants. Some of these taluqdars were loyal to the Nawab. That is why they joined the wife of the Nawab, Begum Hazrat Mahal

Ans. The mutiny of 1857 is termed as the first war of Indian Independence. It is true that this rebellion was started by the sepoys but soon it had become a mass rebellion. It was a revolutionary uprising against the British. The main reason for this rebellion was extensive discontent among the common people. The people of India were oppressed with the policies and imperialist exploitation of the British. The native rulers, farmers, traders, soldiers and the ordinary people – all suffered insult and humiliation under the British rule. All of them wanted to get free from the British by any means. So as the fire of rebellion broke out in 1857, the people belonging to different religions, castes and sections of society participated in it.

Political Causes:

i) The Subsidiary Alliance of Lord Wellesley and the Doctrine of Lapse enforced by Lord Dalhousie generated a sense of discontentment and dissatisfaction among all the Indians.

ii) The pension of Nana Sahib was stopped due to which he turned against the British.

iii) The Rani of Jhansi was not permitted to adopt a son so she was also annoyed with the British.

iv) The Zamindars and chiefs were also against the British because their land had been snatched by the British officials and rulers.

Economic Causes:

i) Due to the industrial revolution, the things produced in England were quite cheap. As a result, the sale of the British goods increased immensely. The Indian industry almost collapsed and many artisans and craftsmen of India lost their means of livelihood and therefore they turned against the British.

ii) Because of the British policy of trade, the Indian trade was shattered. If Indian things-were sent to England, a heavy duty was imposed on these things. Consequently, the Indian goods became very costly and therefore there was a decline in the demand for Indian goods. In fact, the Indian trade lost its ground.

iii) During the British rule, the Zamindars were considered as the owners of the land. They collected a fixed revenue and deposited it in the government treasury. On the other hand, they collected revenue from the farmers as per their wish. As a result, the farmers felt suffocated and wanted to get rid of this oppression and exploitation.

(iv) Heavy taxes were imposed on the people of India. The taxes were so much that the people found it difficult to survive. Ultimately they revolted against the government.

Social and religious causes:

i) The Christian missionaries were engaged in the process of religious conversion. They were exhorting Indians to adopt Christianity due to which many Indians turned against them.

ii) William Bentinck had introduced many reforms in the Indian society. He had abolished customs like Sati and permitted the remarriage of Hindu widows. He also banned child marriages. Many Hindus considered it as an interference in their religious affairs.

iii) There was also a widespread discontentment among the Indians because of the British system of education. As the British introduced western education, western ideas and western institutions, many Indians felt that it was an attempt to turn them into Christians.

Military Causes:

i) In 1856, the British Parliamentary passed a law by which the Indians could be sent across the sea to fight against any enemy. During those days. The Hindus considered it a sin against their religion to cross the sea. So they opposed the British rule.

ii) The Indian soldiers were maltreated during the parade. So they could not bear their insult for long.

iii) The Indian soldiers got less salary as compared with their British counterpart. It generated a sense of discontentment among the Indian soldiers.

iv) The British officials made fun of the Indian culture and civilization even in front of the Indian soldiers. Naturally the Indian soldiers wanted to avenge their insult.

Immediate causes:

i) The soldiers were given new Enfield rifles. The cartridges of these rifles were coated with fat of the cows and pigs. So a few sepoys of the Barrackpur cantonment refused to use them.

ii) Mangal Pandey, a soldier, felt so enraged that he killed a British official. He was later on hanged to death for this offence. All other Indian soldiers lost their patience and revolted against the British.

Ans. rumours and prophecies played a significant role in the Revolt of 1857. It is clear from the following examples:

i) Rumours about Cartridges: There was a rumour that the new cartridges of Enfield Rifles were greased with the fat of cows and pigs. This rumour spread like a wild fire across the sepoy-lines of North India.

ii) Rumours about flour mixed with bone dust: There was a rumour that a British had conspired to destroy the caste and religion of both the Hindus and the Muslims. Some people spread the rumour that the British of had mixed bone dust of cows and pigs into the flour that was sold in the market. So the common people as well as the sepoys in various cantonments refused to touch and eat this flour.

Some people considered it as the British attempt to convert Indians to Christianity. The British contradicted these rumours but nobody believed them.

iii) Distribution of Chapattis: Another thing that defied any explanation was the distribution of chapattis from village to village. At night, a person gave five chapattis to the watchman of the village. He asked him to make five more chapattis and distribute them in the next village. The meaning and purpose of such distribution of the chapattis remained an enigma to most of the people.

Ans. The rumours reflect the mind of the people who were agitated against the British. They brought out the fear and apprehensions, faiths and convictions of the people. They exposed the fears and suspicions of the people.

i) Lord William Bentinck, the Governor General of the British Empire in India, introduced certain reforms in the Indian society. He introduced western education, western ideas and western institutions. He set up English medium institutions. But the Hindus considered his attempts as the methods of westernization of Indian society.

ii) Lord William Bentinck abolished customs like Sati and child marriage. British also permitted the remarriage of Hindu widows. But the traditional Hindus took these steps as an interference in their religious affairs.

Ans. The Revolt of 1857 was well planned and well-coordinated. It is evident from the following points:

i) There was coordination and harmony between sepoys and the ordinary people. Both wanted to target white people and their allies.

ii) The revolt got a tinge of legitimacy as it was carried forward under the leadership of Bahadur Shah, the last Mughal Emperor in India.

iii) The Hindus and the Muslims united and rose together against the white people.

iv) There was continuous communication between the sepoy lines of various cantonments.

v) Another example of good planning and organizing can be cited from Awadh where captain Hearsey of Awadh Military Police was provided protection by his Indian subordinates during the mutiny.

vi) The 41^st Native Infantry, which had killed all its white officers, instead that the military policy would either kill Captain Hearsey or hand over him as prisoner. But the military police refused to kill Captain Hearsey. At last they decided to settle the issue in a panchayat having native officers drawn from each regiment. In other words, many decisions during the rebellion were taken collectively.

Ans. Introduction:

There are a number of visual representations of the Revolt of 1857 like paintings, pencil drawings, etchings, posters, cartoons, bazaar prints, etc., which were produced by the British and Indian artists and painters. These are discussed below:

i) British pictures offers a variety of images that were meant to provoke a range of different emotions and reactions. Some of them commemorate the British heroes who saved the English and repressed the Rebels. For eg. “Relief of Lucknow’, painted by Thomas Jones Barker in 1859 depicts the efforts of James Outrom, Henry Havelock and Colin Campbell in rescuing the besieged British Garrison in Lucknow.

ii) Newspaper reports have a power over public imagination. This reported about the incidence of violence against women and children and raised a public demand in Britain for revenge and retribution. Artists expressed as well as shaped these sentiments through their visual representations of trauma and suffering.

iii) “In Memoriam” was painted by Joseph Noel Paton in which English women and children huddled in a circle, looking helpless and innocent seemingly waiting for the inevitable dishonor, a violence and death coming from the rebels. This represents the rebels as violent and brutish.

iv) In another set of sketches and paintings women are seen in a different light. They appear heroic, defending themselves against the attack of rebels, for e.g. a painting depict Miss Wheeler who stands firmly at the centre, defending her honor, single-handedly killing the attacking rebels. This picture is represented as having a deeper religious connotation. It is a battle to save the honor of Christianity and the book lying on the floor is the Bible.

v) As waves of anger and shock spread in Britain, demands for retribution grew louder. Threatened by the rebellion, the British felt that they had to demonstrate their invincibility. For e.g. in an image an allegorical female figure of justice with a sword in one hand and a shield in the other is seen. Her posture is aggressive, her face expresses anger and the desire for revenge. She is trampling sepoys under her feet while a mass of Indian women with children cower with fear.

vi) When Governor General Canning declared that a gesture of Leniency, he was mocked in the British press. In a British Journal of comic satire, Canning is shown as a looming father figure, with his protective handover the head of a sepoy who still holds sword and dagger in hands, both dripping with blood.

vii) On the other hand leaders of revolt were presented as heroic figures leading the country into battle rousing the people to righteous indignation against oppressive imperial rule. For example, Rani of Jhansi was represented as in popular prints of masculine figure chasing the enemy slaying British soldiers and fighting till her last. She is usually portrayed in battle armour with a sword in hand and riding a horse.