Class XII – Kings and Chronicles – Important Questions

Ans. Mughal rulers believed that they are appointed by the ‘God’ himself to rule over a large and heterogeneous populace. Although actual political circumstances circumscribed this grand vision but this vision remained important. One of the methods of transmitting this vision was writing of the dynastic histories. The Mughal rulers gave this work, of writing accounts of their achievements, to their court historians. These accounts recorded all the events of the emperor’s reign. Except this, these authors also collected a lot of information about other aspects of the sub-continent which helped the rulers to govern their domain.

Ans. Mughal chronicles present or continuous chronological record of events and are an indispensable source for any scholar who wanted to write about Mughal history. On one side. These chronicles give us information about institutions of Mughal empire and on the other side they convey the meaning of those objectives which Mughal rulers wanted to impose on their domain. In this way these chronicles give us at glimpse that how imperial ideologies were created and disseminated.

Ans. Once emperor Shah Jahan called Abdul Hamid Lahori and requested him to write a history of his reign as was done in Akbarnama. As a result, Badshahnama was written by Abdul Hamid Lahori, a pupil of Abul fazl. It is the official history of the events which occur during the reign of emperor Shah Jahan. It was written in three volumes. Each volume covered a period of 10 years. The Asiatic society was the first to publish edited versions of Badshahnama in the 19^th century.

Ans. (i) Akbarnama composed by Abul Fazal was written to provide a detailed description of Akbar’s reign.

(ii) It is divided into three books of which the first two are chronicles, the third one is the ‘Ain-i-Akbari’.

Ans. Gulbadan Was daughter of Babur, and sister of Humayun. she was a fluent writer in Turkish and Persian. When Abul Fazl was writing his Akbarnama about the history of the reign of Akbar, she was requested by Akbar to write her memories of earlier times under Babur and Humayun. Gulbadan Begum wrote an interesting book Humaynnama. It gives us a glimpse into the domestic world of the Mughals. It also shows the important role played by elderly women who mediated to resolve some the conflicts.

Ans. (i) The emperor used to start his day at sunrise with some personal religious prayers and after that he used to come in a small balcony, i.e., jharokha, facing east. Underneath it a multitude of people (soldiers, merchants, craftsmen, farmers, women with sick children) waited to catch a glimpse of the emperor. The purpose of the practice of Jharokha Darshan, introduced by Akbar, was to further expand the acceptance of royal authority in the form of public trust.

(ii) After spending an hour in the window, the emperor used to come to the public meeting hall (Diwan-i-Aam) to conduct the primary functions of his government. There the state officials used to submit reports and make requests.

Ans. (i) During the colonial, British administrators began to study Indian history and establish archives of knowledge about the subcontinent in order to better understand the people and cultures of their empire (over which they wanted to rule for a long time).

(ii) The Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded by Sir William Jones in 1784, took upon itself the responsibility of editing, publishing and translating many Indian manuscripts. Edited versions of the Akbarnama and the Badshahnama were first published by the Asiatic Society in the nineteenth century.

Ans. (i) Akbar abolished the pilgrimage tax in 1563 and Jaziya in 1564 as both these taxes were based on religious bias.

(ii) The officers of the empire were instructed to follow the rule of Sulah-i-kul in administration.

Ans. (i) The word ‘Haram’ is often used to refer to the home world of the Mughals. The word is derived from Persian which means ‘sacred place’. The Mugal family consisted of the emperor’s wives and concubines, his near and distant relatives (mothers, step mothers and sub-mothers, sisters, daughters, daughter-in-laws, aunts and children, etc) and female attendants and slaves.

(ii) Polygamy was widespread in the Indian subcontinent, especially among the ruling classes.

Ans. (i) The atmosphere of the court came alive on some special occasions like the anniversaries of the accession, Eid, Shab-e-Barat and Holi. Scented candles placed in decorated boxes and colorful bandanas on the walls of the palace left a wonderful impression on the visitors.

(ii) The Mughal rulers used to celebrate three main festivals in the year: the ruler’s birthday according to Suryavarsha and Chandravarsha and the Persian New Year on the spring.

Ans. (i) Jesuit was a society of Christian missionaries. The Portuguese king was also interested in the propagation of Christianity with the help of the missionaries of the Society of Jesus (Jesuit). The Jesuit delegations to India during the sixteenth century were part of this process of trade and empire building.

(ii) The first Jesuit delegation reached the Mughal court of Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 and stayed there for about two years. These Jesuits spoke to Akbar about Christianity and had a debate with the Ulama about its virtues. Two more delegations were sent to the Mughal court in Lahore in 1591 and 1595.

Ans. Akbar consciously made the Persian language as the leading language of Mughal court. He did it for the following reasons:

• Cultural and intellectual contacts with Iran and in addition, Iranian and Central Asian migrants seeking positions at the Mughal court might have made the Emperor to adopt this language.
• Persian was made the language of empire, granting power and prestige on those who had command over this language.
• It was spoken by the king, the royal household and the elite at court.
• Persian became the language of administration at all levels so that accountants, clerk and other functionaries learn it.

Ans. The following points in this regard are discussed below:

• The political and diplomatic relations between the Mughal kings and the neighouring countries of Iran and Turan hinged on the control of the frontier defined by the Hindukush mountains that separated Afghanistan and the regions of Iran and Central Asia.
• Qandahar was a bone of contention between the Safavids and the Mughals. The fortress town had initially been in the possession of Humayun, recognized in 1595 by Akbar. While the Safavid court retained diplomatic relations with the Mughals, it continued to stake claims to Qandahar.
• In 1613 Jahangir sent a diplomatic envoy to the court of Shah Abbas to plead the Mughal case for retaining Qandahar but the mission failed.
• In the winter of 1622 a Persian army besieged Qandahar. The ill-prepared Mughal garrison was defeated and had to surrender the fortress and the city to the ssafavids.

Ans. The Mughal rulers efficiently assimilated heterogeneous populace within an imperial edifice. This statement can be justified in the following ways:

• Mughal chronicles described that the Mughal empire was comprised of many different ethnic and religious communities i.e., Hindus, Jainis, Zoroastrians (parsis) and Muslims.
• As the emperor gathered knowledge about all religions and sects, he stood above all religious and ethnic groups, mediated among them and ensured justice and peace for all.
• Akbar accepted the ideal of Sulh-i-kul i.e., all religions and schools of thought had freedom of expression, but they did not undermine the authority of the state.
• Akbar abolished tax on pilgrimage and Jizya. All Mughal emperors gave grants to support the building and maintenance of the places of worship when temples were destroyed during war. Later grants were given to repair these at the time of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.

15. ‘One important administration pillar of Mughal was the nobility’. Justify.

Ans. One of the most important pillar of the Mughal state was its corps of officers. Historians called them as nobility. The main features of this class were:

• The nobility was recruited from diverse ethnic and religious groups. It ensured that no group was large enough to challenge the authority of the king.
• The nobility was described as a bouquet of flowers (guldasta) held together by loyalty to the emperor.
• In Akbar’s time, Turani and Iranian nobles played a significant role in administration. Many of them accompanied Humayun, some migrated later to join the Mughal Court.

Ans. The ideal of Sulh-i-kul i.e., absolute peace was described by Abu’l Fazl as the corner stone of enlightened rule. This can be justified in the following ways:

• Mughal empire had many different ethnic and religious communities like Hindus, Jainas, Zoroastrians and Muslims. Thus, the emperor stood above all religious and ethnic groups to ensure justice and peace for all.
• In Sulh-i-kul, all religions and schools of thought had freedom of expression but on one condition that they did not ignore the authority of the state or fight among themselves to capture power.
• The ideal of Sulh-i-kul was implemented through state policies in which nobilities were comprising Iranis, Turanis, Afghans, Rajputs and Deccanis. All of them were given positions and awards on a basis of their service and loyalty to the emperor.
• In 1563, Akbar abolished the tax on pilgrimage and in 1564 he abolished Jizya. Both of these were based on religious discrimination.
• All Mughal emperors gave grants to support the building and maintenance of places of worship.

Ans. The distinctive features of the imperial household of the Mughal Empire can be explained in the following ways:

• The household of the Mughals consisted of the emperor’s wives and concubines, his mother, step and foster mothers, sisters, daughters, daughter-in-law, aunts, children, etc and female servants and slaves.
• Polygamy was widely practiced by the Mughal emperor. The term ‘harem’ is used to refer to the domestic world of the Mughals. Persian word ‘harem’ means sacred place. Slave cunuchs (Khwajasara) were appointed as guards or servants in the harem.
• In the Mughal household, a difference was kept between wives come from royal, aristocratic families (begums) and other wives (aghas) who were not so noble by birth. The concubines (aghacha) occupied the lowest position. They all received monthly allowances and gift according to their status. The agha and aghacha could rise to the position of a begum depending on the husband’s will and in case where the husband did not already have four wives. Love and motherhood are considered here in acquiring such position for legally wedded wives.
• Apart from wives, numerous male and female slaves were there in the Mughal household. They performed various types of works from regular work to specialized work which requires skill, tact and intelligence.
• Many Mughal queens and princes like Nur Jahan, Jahanara, Roshanara enjoyed significant power and financial status. Often elderly women of Mughal household played significant role in resolving tension among princes and kings.

Ans. Many historians think Jalaluddin Akbar is the greatest of all emperor. Akbar (1556 – 1605) not only expanded the empire but also consolidated it in the following ways:

• Akbar became the emperor in 1556. He checked the expansionist designs of Uzbeks of Turan (Central Asia) and the Safavids of Iran. Qandahar was a bone of contention between the Safavids and the Mughals. Akbar reconquered it in 1595. He succeeded in extending the frontiers of the empire to the Hindukush mountains.
• Akbar not only secured the frontiers of the empire, but he also expanded his empire to the Deccan. In Deccan, various states were constantly on war with eachother. Akbar established his empire in Deccan and resolved the internal conflicts and persuaded the sultans to accept his supremacy.
• Akbar consolidated the various instruments of governance. An effective method of taxation and administration was introduced. He abolished the tax on pilgrimage in 1563 and Jizya in 1564 as these two were based on religious discrimination.
• Instructions were sent to officers to follow the precept of Sulh-i-kul (absolute peace) in administration. All the Iranians, Turanis, Afghans, Rajputs, Deccan nobles were given position and awards purely on the basis of their service and loyalty to the king. In this way, expansion and consolidation of Mughal Empire under Akbar took place.

Ans. Jharoka darshan or appearance from the small balcony was introduced by Akbar with the objective of broadening the acceptance of the imperial authority as part of popular faith. The emperor began his day at sunrise with personal religious devotions or prayers and then appeared on a small balcony. The small balcony was known as the Jharoka and it faced the east. Below a crowd of people waited for a view or darshan of the emperor. After spending an hour at the Jharoka, the emperor went to the public hall of audience (Diwan-i-am) to conduct the primary business of the government. Here state officials presented reports and made requests to the emperor. The emperor spent two hours here and then left for Diwan-i-Khas to discuss confidential matters.

Ans.

• The women of the Imperial household in the Mughal Empire played a significant role. Gulbadan was the daughter of Babur Humayun’s sister and Akbar’s aunt.
• Gulbadan could write fluently in Turkish and Persian. Humayun Nama was written by Gulbadan Begum which gave us interesting view into the domestic world of the Mughals.
• When Akbar appointed Abu’l Fazl to write a history of his rule, he requested his aunt to record his biography of earlier times under Babur and Humayun, for Abu’l Fazl to extract important things from it. Gulbadan did not write praising the Mughal emperors. But she described in great details the conflicts and tensions among the princes and kings.
• She also described the important mediating role which elderly women of the family played in resolving some of these conflicts. After Nur Jahan, Mughal queens and princesses started to control great amount of financial resources.
• Shah Jahan’s daughter Jahanara and Roshanara enjoyed an annual income almost equal to that of high imperial mansabdars. Jahanara also received revenues from the port city of Surat, which was a profit making center of overseas trade.
• Women belonging to the Mughal household could start construction of buildings and gardens because they had control over resources. Jahanara participated in many architectural projects of Shah Jahan’s new capital, Shahjahanabad (Delhi). Among these was an impressive double – storyed caravanserai with a courtyard and garden. The bazaar of Chandni Chowk, the crowded center of Shahjahanabad, was designed by Jahanara.

Ans.

• The nobility was recruited from diverse ethnic and religious groups. This ensured that no faction was large enough to challenge the authority of the state.
• The officer corps of the Mughals was described as a bouquet of flowers held together by loyalty of the emperor. In Akbar’s imperial service, Turani and Iranian nobles were present from the time of Humayun.
• People from many races have sought refuge in the imperial court. Men with knowledge and skills as well as warriors were the part of nobility.
• Rajputs and Indian Muslims entered the Imperial service during the time of Akbar. Iranian gained high offices under Jahangir. Aurangzeb appointed Rajputs to highest position.
• Rajput Clans as well as the Mughals marriage was an another way of cementing Paolitical relationships. The Marathas were also there. The ideal of Sulh-i-kul was implemented through state policies.
• The nobles participated in military campaigns with their armies and also served as officers of the empire in the provinces. The nobles were Mansabdars of Mughal Rulers.
• Members of Hindu Castes inclined towards education and Accountancy were also promoted. A famous example being Akbar’s finance minister Raja Todar Mal, who belonged to the Khatri caste.

Ans.

• All books in Mughal India were manuscripts, that is, they were handwritten. The centre of manuscript production was the imperial kitabkhana.
• Although kitabkhana can be translated as library, it was a scriptorium, that is, place where the emperor’s collection of manuscripts was kept and new manuscripts were produced.
• The creation of a manuscript involved a number of people performing a variety of tasks.
• Paper maker were needed to prepare the folios of the manuscript, scribes or calligraphers to copy the text, gliders to illuminate the pages, painters to illustrate scenes from the text, bookbinders to gather the individual folios and set them within ornamental covers.
• The finished manuscripts were seen as precious object, a work of intellectual wealth and beauty.
• It exemplified the power of its patron, the Mughal emperor, to bring such beauty into being.

Ans.

• Safavids and Mughals
• The relationship between the Mughals and the Ottomons was marked by the concern to ensure free movement for merchants and pilgrims in the territories under Ottomon control. This was especially true for the Hijaz, that part of Ottomon Arabia where the important pilgrim centres of Mecca and Medina were located.
• The Mughal emperor usually combined relgion and commerce by exporting valuable merchandise to Aden and Mokha, both Red Sea ports, and distributing the proceeds of the sales in charity to the keepers of shrines and religious men there.
• However, when Aurangzeb discovered cases of misappropriation of funds sent to Arabia, he favoured their distribution in India which, he thought, “was as much a house of God as Mecca”.